Network Protocols and Standards:

• Protocols: These are rules and procedures that govern communication between devices. They define data exchange formats, sequencing, and synchronization. Examples include TCP/IP, HTTP, and DNS.
• Standards: These specify how devices must work together. Compliance with standards ensures compatibility and interoperability. Organizations like IEEE, ISO, and ANSI create these standards

Network Topologies:

• Point-to-Point Topology: Simple communication between two nodes (sender and receiver).
• Mesh Topology: Devices interconnected via dedicated channels (links). Provides robustness and reliability.
• Star Topology: All devices connect to a central hub. Commonly used in LANs.
• Bus Topology: Devices share a single communication line. Data packets are sent to all connected devices.
• Ring Topology: Devices form a closed loop. Data circulates in one direction.
• Tree Topology: Hierarchical structure with a root node and branches.
• Hybrid Topology: A combination of different topologies

Network Devices:

• Repeater: Regenerates weak signals to extend transmission distance.
• Hub: Multi-port repeater that connects multiple devices. Broadcasts data to all connected devices.
• Bridge: Operates at the data link layer, filtering content based on MAC addresses.
• Switch: Efficiently forwards data based on MAC addresses. Reduces collision domains.
• Router: Directs traffic between different networks. Works at the network layer.
• Gateway: Connects different types of networks (e.g., LAN to WAN).
• Brouter: Combines features of a bridge and a router.
• NIC (Network Interface Card): Hardware component that enables devices to connect to a network

Network Security:

• Firewall: Restricts internet traffic, controlling data flow in and out of a private network.
• VPN (Virtual Private Network): Provides secure communication over public networks.
• Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Monitors network traffic for suspicious activity.
• Encryption: Protects data confidentiality during transmission.
• Access Control Lists (ACLs): Define permissions for network resources.
• Authentication and Authorization: Verify user identities and control access